Belisarius: The Last Roman General (52 page)

There is one further aspect of Belisarius’ performance as a general that is usually overlooked: his personality. As was seen in Chapter 3, Zacharias described Belisarius as a man not open to bribery, who was kind to the natives, and who did not allow the army to injure them. He maintained this practice throughout his military life and it gained him a formidable reputation for honesty and decency – which is in contrast to the reputation of the majority of the Byzantine generals and bureaucrats mentioned in Procopius. The result was that the inhabitants of Africa and then Italy chose loyalty to the empire over loyalty to the Vandals and Goths. The net result was that he needed to leave fewer men to act as garrisons and so maintained a larger army in the field than would otherwise have been possible: an important factor since he had a limited amount of manpower to work with. His integrity would encourage others to treat him fairly and would entice his opponents to surrender in the knowledge that they would be treated with respect and allowed to retain their dignity. It is interesting to note that when Gelimer was part of Belisarius’ triumph in Constantinople, Belisarius performed obeisance to the emperor at the same time as Gelimer. Although the reasons for this simultaneous
proskineisis
will never be fully known, it is possible that at least part of this was in order to minimise the humiliation felt by Gelimer at having to surrender.

Belisarius was obviously a man of strong character and outstanding moral bearing, especially when he is compared to his compatriots. The only time when he failed to maintain high moral integrity was when the Goths offered him the kingship of Italy. His desire to return to Constantinople having secured total victory resulted in him misleading the Goths into thinking that he was going to accept their proposal. In an ironic twist, it is likely that the manner of his refusal resulted in the Goths prolonging the war and Belisarius later having to spend several wasted years in Italy attempting to fight a war that he could not win.

As an overall judgement of Belisarius, therefore, it is possible to reach a simple conclusion. This was a man who was far above average in his military ability and very far above others in his moral integrity. His grasp of strategic considerations was unmatched and his reactions to events almost faultless. The fact that he lost battles due to either bad planning or by being pressured into fighting by his own men when at a disadvantage means that he cannot be placed on a par with outstanding military leaders such as Julius Caesar or Alexander the Great, but his abilities place him not far below their level. Although at times – such as in the Battle of Ad Decimum and at the siege of Naples – he can be said to have been lucky, this should not make us underestimate his abilities, since luck has always been a major factor in warfare. As Napoleon once said after listening to references for a candidate for promotion, ‘I do not doubt that he is a good general, but is he lucky?’

Appendix I

Chronology

235     Death of Severus Alexander: beginning of ‘Third Century Crisis’.

260     Valerian defeated and captured by Persians: Antioch sacked.

306-327     Reign of Constantine I (the Great).

357     Battle of Strasbourg (Argentoratum): Julian defeats Alamanni.

376     Valens allows Goths to enter Roman territory.

378     Gothic rebellion: Valens defeated and killed at Battle of Adrianople.

382     Theodosius signs treaty with Goths, who are given land in the Balkans.

395     Hunnic raids across Caucasus Mountains.

406     Rebellion of Constantine III in Britain: Vandals, Alans and Sueves cross frozen Rhine into Gaul.

409     Vandals etc cross into Spain.

410     Rome sacked by Alaric.

418     Visigoths settled in Aquitaine.

451     Attila invades Gaul: defeated by Aetius at Battle of Catalaunian Plains.

453     Death of Attila.

454     Battle of the Nedao, collapse of Hunnic Empire. Murder of Aetius by Valentinian II.

455     Assassination of Valentinian III: Sack of Rome by the Vandals.

461     Majorian attempts to reconquer Africa from the Vandals, attempt fails.

466     Euric, king of Visigoths, leads conquest of Southern Gaul and Spain.

468     Anthemius with eastern support attempts conquest of Vandal Africa, fails.

472     Orestes becomes
magister militum
in the west. Emperor Julius Nepos forced to withdraw to Illyricum. Orestes has own son declared Emperor as Romulus Augustulus.

474     Rule of Vandals in Africa recognised by Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Emperor Zeno.

475     Rule of Visigoths in Southern Gaul and Spain recognised by Emperor Julius Nepos in Illyricum.

476     Odovacer establishes himself as
magister militum
in the west. Deposes Romulus Augustulus and establishes his own rule in Italy. Traditional date for the end of the Western Roman Empire.

488 Theoderic, king of the Goths in the Balkans, ordered by the Byzantine
Emperor Zeno to ‘recover’ Italy.

493     Theoderic’s siege of Odovacer in Ravenna lifted by truce: Theoderic kills Odovacer.

c.500     Birth of Procopius.

502     War begins with the Persians, after Kavadh has subjugated Armenia with the aid of the Eastern or Hepthalite Huns. The Bulgars defeat a Roman army.

503     The Persians take Theodosiopolis and Amida.

505     The
magister officiorum
Celer invades Persia and reaches Ctesiphon. An invasion by the Western Huns across the Caucasus brings an armistice.

506     Anastasius signs a seven-year truce with the Persians.

507     Byzantine fleet raids Italy.

508     Clovis, king of the Franks, captures the Visigothic capital Toulouse and establishes his own capital at Paris. He is made a consul by Anastasius.

517     The Slavs raid as far as Thermopylae. Defeated by Germanus.

518     Death of Anastasius. Justin elected emperor.

525     Byzantine war with Persia. The Persians move against Iberia, which is conquered despite a small army sent by Justin.

526     Death of Theodoric the Great, king of the Ostrogoths. His 8-10-year old grandson Athalaric becomes king. His mother Amalasuintha assumes guardianship. The generals Sittas and Belisarius invade Persarmenia.

527     Justin becomes ill: his nephew Justinian is elevated to co-emperor. Belisarius promoted to
Dux Mesopotamiae
(June/July): Procopius appointed his secretary. Death of Justin: Justinian sole emperor (August).

528     Justinian sends John son of Rufinus to conquer the Crimea with a combined land and naval expedition. Byzantines defeated by Persians in Lazica. Sittas appointed as first
magister militum per Armeniam.
Belisarius takes part in first recorded battle: a defeat. Al-Mundhir raids Syria. Bulgars raid Thrace.

529     Justinian suppresses a Samaritan revolt. Belisarius appointed
magister
militum per Onentem
(April). Mundus made
magister militum per Illyricum:
his presence deters attacks until his death in 536.

530     At the Battle of Dara Belisarius defeats the Sasanid Persians.

531     Hilderic is deposed by his cousin Gelimer. Belisarius is defeated by the Sasanid Persians at the Battle of Callinicum. Inquest into the defeat; Belisarius is recalled and replaced by Mundus as
magister militum per Orientem.
Dorotheus, the
magister militum per Armeniam,
defeats Persians (‘the Immortal Soul’) becomes king. Sabir Huns mount extensive raid across the Caucasus. The Franks move east of the Rhine and conquer Thuringia.

532     The Nika Revolt in Constantinople. Belisarius and Mundus allegedly kill
30,000 people in the Hippodrome. Revolt ends.

533     ‘Endless Peace’ signed between Byzantines and Persians. Sardinia rebels from Vandal rule; Tzazon sent by Gelimer to restore Vandal control. Tripolitania rebels from Vandal rule. Belisarius sent to Africa to conquer the Vandal kingdom. The Battle of Ad Decimum (13 Sept): Belisarius defeats Gelimer. Gelimer is joined by his brother Tzazon after his reconquest of Sardinia. He then confronts the Byzantines for a second time, but is defeated at the Battle of Tricamerum (Dec). Tzazon is killed but Gelimer escapes. Belisarius sends troops to take control of the Balearic Isles and Straits of Gibraltar.

534     Gelimer flees to the mountains but surrenders to Belisarius at last at Mount Papua. Many Vandal troops are recruited for the Roman army. Belisarius recalled to Constantinople. Rebellion of the Moors in Africa. The Romans fortify Ceuta at the Straits of Gibraltar. The Ostrogothic king Athalaric dies of alcohol abuse. His mother Amalasuintha marries her cousin Theodahad, who succeeds Athalaric. The Franks invade Burgundy and kill the Burgundian king, Godomar. They divide large parts of Burgundy amongst themselves. Byzantines and Goths clash in Dalmatia.

535     Amalasuintha, queen of the Ostrogoths, is murdered by Theodahad, who allegedly smothers her in her bath. Justinian uses the pretext to invade Italy. His armies under Belisarius occupy Sicily and under Mundus occupy Illyricum. To secure Frankish help, Witigis cedes Provence to the Franks.

536     Stotzas rebels in Africa: Belisarius returns and defeats rebels outside Carthage. Belisarius returns to Sicily prior to war in Italy. Germanus sent to Africa, defeats Stotzas at Scala Veteres. Belisarius lands in Italy, marches north and conquers Naples. He continues north and enters Rome (9 Dec). Theodahad tries to negotiate, but the Ostrogoths depose him and elect Witigis in his place as ‘King of the Goths and Italians’. Witigis marries Matasuintha (granddaughter of Theoderic) and recalls the Gothic forces from southern Gaul (which is then occupied by the Franks).

537     The Ostrogoths under Witigis begin the siege of Rome (late Feb/early March). Battle of Rome and defeat of Belisarius (spring).

538     After a year, the Goths raise the siege of Rome (March). Belisarius takes control of Ariminum, which the Goths place under siege, and Milan. Arrival of reinforcements under Narses.

539     The siege of Ariminum is relieved and the Byzantine siege of Auximus begins. Witigis gains aid from the Franks, who send 10,000 Burgundians to support him. The Goths and Burgundians retake Milan. The women and children are given as slaves to the Burgundians for their help. The Goths retreat under pressure from Belisarius. Belisarius besieges Witigis in Ravenna. The Goths propose a peace treaty in which they keep the territory north of the River Po, with the rest of Italy going to the Empire. Under their king, Theudibert, the Franks invade Italy, but are forced to retreat when disease breaks out in their army. Justinian limits all
production of weapons to state-owned
fabricae.

540     Goths offer Belisarius kingship of Goths and Italy. After the food supply is destroyed by fire, Ravenna falls (May). Belisarius captures Witigis, together with the Ostrogothic treasure. The Ostrogoths elect Ildibadus as their new king. Belisarius leaves Italy. Witigis is paraded in Belisarius’ triumph before being given a pension and settling in the east. Witigis’ Gothic troops that are captured are enlisted into the Roman army. Ildibadus defeats the Byzantines at Tarbesium. Bulgars ravage Thrace and Macedonia. Khusrow declares war and invades Byzantine territory. He captures many cities including Antioch, which is destroyed.

541     Ildibadus is assassinated and Eraric is made king. Eraric is in turn assassinated and Totila becomes King. Totila builds a fleet and begins the attempt at Gothic recovery. Belisarius is sent to the east. Khusrow campaigns in the east and captures Petra, the Byzantine-held fortress in Lazica. Belisarius attacks Nisibis, before capturing the fortress of Sisauranon. Plague in the eastern provinces.

542     Roman assault on Verona fails. Totila successful at Faventia, then attacks Florentia. Byzantines defeated in the Battle of the Mugello. Totila occupies most of southern Italy. Khusrow again invades the East.Belisarius leads an army to face the Persians and manages to persuade them to retire – possibly out of fear of the plague. Plague reaches Constantinople and possibly reaches Italy. Justinian catches the plague: Belisarius arrested concerning accusations of planning to replace the (assumed-to-be-dead) Justinian: loses post of
magister militum per Orientem.

543     Gothic naval victory. Totila occupies Naples and marches on Rome. Moorish rebellion in Africa.

544     Belisarius returned to imperial favour: made
comes sacn stabuli
and sent back to Italy with only a few reinforcements. Goths lay siege to Auximus. Kutrigur Huns and Bulgars ravage Balkans. Moorish insurrection (ends 548).

545     War in Italy between Totila and Belisarius. Totila attacks Rome. Byzantines relieve Auximus. A five-year truce is signed between Khusrow and Justinian. Stotzas killed in Africa at Sicca Venerea. Guntharis’ rebellion in Africa; he is killed by Artabanes.

546     Totila conquers Rome (17 Dec). Belisarius retreats from the city, which is sacked by the Ostrogoths for forty days. Justinian leaves Pannonia to the Lombards.